Although donkeys may form a small part of an equine practitioner's case load in the UK, they are important companion animals to their owners. Donkeys frequently suffer from benign or active neglect, leading to poor welfare, and their own stoicism may mean delayed detection of disease. This article aims to assist practitioners in recognising and treating donkeys with colic, and to highlight differences in managing a colic case in a donkey compared to a horse. Reducing the incidence of colic can be achieved through appropriate preventative care, which may be overlooked in donkey populations.
Recognition of colic
Colic in donkeys is frequently diagnosed late due to the lack of recognition of pain in this species (Ashley et al, 2005). Clinical signs of impactions and displacements can be confusing with only mild dullness, inappetence, sham eating, recumbency and self-isolation seen for many types (Figures 1 and 2). These signs are also seen in donkeys with hyperlipaemia and non-colic pain. Classic signs of colic (like those seen in horses, including rolling, flank watching, kicking at the abdomen) are unusual. Extreme dullness with accompanying pyrexia and leukopenia are seen in cases of colitis.
As colic often presents with only non-specific signs, there are a wide range of other conditions that need to be ruled out. Therefore, a very thorough clinical examination is required to rule out common differentials; often including blood tests. Despite the vague and often non-specific signs attributable to the donkey's stoicism, veterinarians need to recognise that a dull or inappetent donkey is potentially a clinical emergency. Likewise, owners need to be educated to recognise that a change in their donkey's behaviour may denote an animal in serious condition that should be examined promptly.
Long-term use of analgesia in donkeys with chronic osteoarthritis and laminitis may mask initial signs of pain and fever, and are also effective at masking low-grade abdominal pain, which can also delay prompt colic diagnosis. In a hospital setting, any donkeys on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs should have abdominal auscultation at least twice a day, as well as routine checks including monitoring faecal output, consistency, rectal temperature, general demeanour, pain and stress.
A donkey-specific acute composite and facial pain score has been validated (van Dierendonck et al, 2020) and is useful for monitoring hospital patients and enabling veterinarians to adjust analgesia accordingly (Table 1a and 1b). If donkey patients are hospitalised and sharing a stable with a companion, it can be hard to detect changes in appetite and faecal output without very careful monitoring.
Table 1a. Donkey composite pain scale
| Overall appearance | Score | Pain sounds | Score |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alert and/or is interacting with mate or group | 0 | No audible signs of pain | 0 |
| Mildly depressed and/or restless and/or decreased interaction with mate or group | 1 | Occasional teeth grinding or moaning (1 or 2 times/5 min) | 1 |
| Moderately depressed and/or aggressive or no reaction to mate or group | 2 | Frequent teeth grinding or moaning (3 or 4 times/5 min) | 2 |
| Severely depressed | 3 | Excessive teeth grinding or moaning (>4 times/5 min) | 3 |
| Posture | Score | Changes in behaviour of mate or group | Score |
| Quietly standing and/or one hind leg resting | 0 | Patient is in the group | 0 |
| Slightly tucked up abdomen and/or mild weight shifting | 1 | ||
| Extremely tucked up abdomen and/or hunched back and/or stretching limbs/body and/or mild muscle tremors | 2 | ||
| Sits on hind quarters and/or extreme muscle tremors | 3 | Mate or group leaves or has left patient (excluding herd behaviour) | 3 |
| Weight distribution | Score | Eating (if food is present) | Score |
| Normal weight distribution | 0 | Eats normally or fasts | 0 |
| Eats less and/or slowly | 2 | ||
| Abnormal weight distribution | 3 | Not interested in food | 3 |
| Lying down, rolling (not self-grooming) | Score | Movement | Score |
| Does not lie down or rests lying down | 0 | No reluctance to move and normal gait | 0 |
| Attempts to lie down or is lying down <50% of the time | 1 | Mildly abnormal gait (1 or 2 out of 5 lameness) and/or stiff walk | 1 |
| Lying down >50% of the time | 2 | Reluctance to move when motivated and/or severely abnormal gait (3–5 out of 5 lameness) | 2 |
| Lies down in abnormal position: on its side with stretched limbs or on its back and/or is rolling | 3 | No movement or is lying down | 3 |
| Head carriage | Score | Respiratory rate | Score |
| Ear base above withers or eats/drinks (from the ground) | 0 | 12–28 breaths/min | 0 |
| 29–32 breaths/min | 1 | ||
| Ear base at the level of the withers | 2 | 33–36 breaths/min | 2 |
| Ear base below the withers | 3 | >36 breaths/min | 3 |
| Position of the ears (>75% of the time) | Score | Reaction to observer(s) | Score |
| Normal position | 0 | Reaction to observer(s) | 0 |
| Mild reaction to observer(s) | 2 | ||
| Abnormal position (backwards/sideways/flat) | 3 | No reaction to observer(s) | 3 |
| Episodes of tail flicking (not fly worry) | Score | Reaction to palpation of the painful area | Score |
| No tail flicking, tail in normal position | 0 | No reaction to palpation | 0 |
| Occasional tail flicking (1 or 2 episodes/5min) | 1 | ||
| Frequent tail flicking (3 or 4 episodes/5min) | 2 | Mild reaction to palpation | 2 |
| Excessive tail flicking (>4 episodes/5min) and/or lifts out tail or tail is tucked in | 3 | Severe reaction to palpation | 3 |
| Kicking at abdomen | Score | Heart rate | Score |
| Quietly standing, no kicking | 0 | 32–52 beats/min | 0 |
| Looking at abdomen | 1 | 53–60 beats/min | 1 |
| Lifting up hind legs, may kick once or twice at abdomen | 2 | 61–68 beats/min | 2 |
| Extensive kicking at abdomen (>2episodes/5min) | 3 | >68 beats/min | 3 |
| Pawing at floor | Score | Sweating | Score |
| Quietly standing, does not paw at floor | 0 | No signs of sweating | 0 |
| Points limb | 1 | ||
| Occasional pawing at floor (1 or 2 episodes/5min) | 2 | Signs of sweating (wet spots visible, no droplets or streams) | 2 |
| Extensive pawing at floor (>2 episodes/5min) | 3 | Excessive sweating (streams or droplets) | 3 |
Table 1b. Donkey facial expression pain scale
| Head | Score | Teeth grinding and/or moaning | Score |
|---|---|---|---|
| Normal movement | 0 | Not heard | 0 |
| Less/no or more/exaggerated movement | 2 | Heard | 2 |
| Eyelids | Score | Ear response | Score |
| Opened | 0 | Clear response with both ears or ear closest to source | 0 |
| More opened eyes or tightening of eyelids | 1 | Delayed or reduced response to sounds | 1 |
| Obviously more opened eyes or obvious tightening of eyelids | 2 | No response to sounds | 2 |
| Focus | Score | Ear position | Score |
| Focused on environment | 0 | Normal position | 0 |
| Less focused on environment | 1 | ||
| Not focused on environment | 2 | Abnormal position (hang down/backwards) | 2 |
| Nostrils | Score | Startle/headshaking | Score |
| Relaxed | 0 | No startle/headshaking | 0 |
| A bit more opened, nostrils lifted, wrinkles seen | 1 | ||
| Obviously more opened, nostril flaring, possibly audible breathing | 2 | At least one startle (a sudden abrupt movement with the head as if suddenly aware of danger) and/or period of headshaking | 2 |
| Corners mouth/lips | Score | Sweating behind the ears | Score |
| Relaxed | 0 | No signs of sweating | 0 |
| Lifted | 2 | Signs of sweating | 2 |
Clinical exam and ancillary diagnostics
The basic clinical examination of a donkey for colic should follow the same methodical approach as in the horse. There are minor differences in temperature, pulse and respiration for a donkey versus that of a horse (temperature: 36.5–37.8 °C; heart rate: 36–52 beats per minute; respiratory rate: 12–28 breaths per minute). A rectal exam can be performed in most standard sized donkeys – good restraint is essential by a calm handler. Intravenous sedation and hyoscine butylbromide (buscopan) will help to relax smooth muscle and allow for a more detailed examination. Even if a full rectal examination is not possible, it is usually possible to feel an impacted or distended colon, and information can be gained about mucosal hydration and faecal consistency. Samples can also be taken for faecal egg count. The donkey has a slower gastrointestinal transit time for long fibre compared to a horse, but timings of borborygmi and caecal flush should be the same. Reduction in propulsive gut sounds can indicate an impaction or ileus.
A pony- or foal-sized nasogastric tube is required to check for reflux and administer enteral fluids. The nasal meatus of the donkey is narrow, and it is easy to provoke haemorrhage using a larger stomach tube. A dental exam is useful, and may reveal abnormalities that have contributed to the colic which can be corrected after it has resolved.
Donkeys are adapted to dry climates where water conservation is useful, and re-absorb water in the hind gut efficiently; one consequence of this is that diarrhoea is rarely seen in colitis cases. Ventral and sheath oedema may be palpated rather than seen in a hairy donkey and should prompt investigation for hypoalbuminaemia (Figure 3). Dehydration cannot be reliably detected by skin tenting, but mucous membrane colour and refill are used to detect poor systemic perfusion (Figure 4).
Up to one-third of cases of colic were found to have concomitant hyperlipaemia, which will affect the prognosis if left untreated, so it is essential to test blood samples any donkeys with inappetance (Duffield et al, 2002). Normal donkey blood values can be seen in Table 2.
Table 2. Normal blood values for an adult donkey
| Haematology | Biochemistry | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Average | Range | Average | Range | ||
| Red blood cell (1012/l) | 5.5 | 4.4–7.1 | Triglycerides (mmol/l) | 1.4 | 0.6–2.8 |
| Packed cell volume (%) | 33.0 | 27–42.0 | Creatine phosphokinase (u/l) | 208.0 | 128.0–525.0 |
| Haemoglobin (g/dl) | 11.0 | 8.9–14.7 | Aspartate aminotransferase (u/l) | 362.0 | 238.0–536.0 |
| Mean cellular haemoglobin (pg) | 20.6 | 17.6–23.1 | Gamma-glutamyl transferase (u/l) | 24.0 | 14.0–69.0 |
| Mean cellular haemoglobin concentration (g/dl) | 34.0 | 31.0–37.0 | Glutamate dehydrogenase (u/l) | 2.5 | 1.2–8.2 |
| Mean cellular volume (fl) | 60.0 | 53.0–67.0 | Alkaline phosphatase (u/l) | 152.0 | 98.0–252.0 |
| White blood cell (109/l) | 10.0 | 6.2–15.0 | Bile acids (μmol/l) | 10.0 | 2.6–18.6 |
| Neutrophil (%) | 38.3 | 23.0–59.0 | Total bilirubin (μmol/l) | 1.6 | 0.1–3.7 |
| Neutrophil total (109/l) | 3.7 | 2.6–6.3 | Total protein (g/l) | 65.0 | 58.0–76.0 |
| Eosinophil (%) | 4.0 | 0.9–9.1 | Albumin (g/l) | 26.0 | 22.0–32.0 |
| Eosinophil total (109/l) | 0.4 | 0.1–0.9 | Globuline (g/l) | 38.0 | 32.0–48.0 |
| Basophil (%) | 0.05 | 0.0–0.5 | Creatine (μmol/l) | 87.0 | 53.0–118.0 |
| Basophil total (109/l) | 0.0 | 0.0–0.07 | Urea (mmol/l) | 3.2 | 1.5–5.2 |
| Lymphocyte (%) | 54.0 | 34.0–69.0 | Amylase (u/l) | 4.0 | 1.0–10.6 |
| Lymphocyte total (109/l) | 5.5 | 2.2–9.6 | Lipase (u/l) | 12.9 | 7.8–27.3 |
| Monocyte (%) | 3.0 | 0.5–7.5 | Glucose (mmol/l) | 4.4 | 3.9–4.7 |
| Monocyte total (109/l) | 0.3 | 0–0.75 | Calcium (mmol/l) | 3.0 | 2.2–3.4 |
| Platelets (109/l) | 201.0 | 95.0–384.0 | Sodium (mmol/l) | 133.0 | 128.0–138.0 |
| Red blood cell distribution width (%) | 18.3 | 16.1–22 | Potassium (mmol/l) | 4.3 | 3.2–5.1 |
| Clotting factors | Chloride (mmol/l) | 102.0 | 96.0–106.0 | ||
| Fibrinogen (g/l) | 0.6–2.6 | Cholesterol (mmol/l) | 2.0 | 1.4–2.9 | |
| Prothrombin (seconds) | 8.9–14.5 | ||||
Ultrasound examination is useful as part of a colic investigation in any donkey (especially donkeys which are too small for safe palpation per-rectum) to identify lesions and locate a fluid pocket for a peritoneal tap (Figure 5). Obesity will hamper image acquisition; as fat is laid down along the linea alba, a long catheter or spinal needle is required to collect peritoneal fluid in obese donkeys. As in the horse, lactate values for serum and peritoneal fluids should be <2 mmol/l, although donkey-specific reference ranges are not yet available.
As donkeys are at higher risk of hyperlipaemia if fasted, management of the donkey around gastroscopy is needed. At the Donkey Sanctuary, the protocol is to remove forage 16 hours pri- or to the procedure and offer a small bucket feed at 12 hours prior. Before starting, a blood sample is checked for triglycerides and, if above the normal value of 2.8 mmol/l, oral dextrose at 1 mg/kg is given. If the donkey shows clinical signs of dullness or the triglycerides are above 8 mmol/l, the procedure is not performed.
Common causes of colic
Colic is reported in donkeys to occur at a similar rate to horses, with an incidence of 5.9 episodes/100 donkeys in a year, and of those, 3.2/100 were impaction colic (Cox et al, 2007). Impactions can occur at any location, but are typically found in the pelvic flexure, caecum or stomach. In a review of surgical cases (Merridale-Punter et al, 2023) lesions were identified as being present in various locations:
- Small intestine: 46.9%
- Large colon: 39.3%
- Caecum: 6%
- Stomach: 6%
- Multiple locations: 6%.
Impaction colic of the colon may present late in donkeys because of their stoical behaviour. Affected animals rarely roll or kick their belly as seen in a horse, tending instead to self-isolate and often look dull. Frequently, the only abnormal clinical finding is reduced gut sounds, and if a rectal exam is not performed, these cases can be missed. The mortality rate in donkeys with impaction colic is higher than in horses (Cox et al, 2007), likely due to age, co-morbidities and late presentation. Caecal impaction presents with similar signs to colon impaction, but responds poorly to conventional medical therapy with fluids and analgesia.
Although many donkeys are obese, pedunculated lipomas are rarely seen. There are an absence of large multicentric colic data in the donkey, however in the author's experience of caring for a large donkey herd (over 2 500 donkeys) over 25 years, a definite pedunculated lipoma leading to a surgical colic lesion has only been found once. Abdominal neoplasia can present with colic-like signs and is found more commonly (although not exclusively) in older donkeys (Morrow et al, 2011; Davis et al, 2016). Gastric ulceration is recognised in donkeys and can occur in inappetent animals, those with hyperlipaemia associated with colic and those with prolonged stress (Sgorbini et al, 2017). Treatment protocols are the same as those used in the horse. Injectable omeprazole may be less stressful to administer as recommended once every 5 days compared to daily oral dosing. Oral preparations should be administered on an empty stomach, making it difficult to use when tempting a sick donkey to eat.
Treatment options
The same principles apply to treating colic in the donkey as in the horse: analgesia, fluids, supportive therapy and good decision making regarding when to euthanise or refer to a hospital for further investigations and possible surgery.
Donkeys metabolise most non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs faster than horses (Grosenbaugh et al, 2011); flunixin meglumine and phenylbutazone are used twice daily (phenylbutazone up to three times in miniature donkeys (Cheng et al, 1996), which have increased clearance of the drug) but there are little data available for opiates, paracetamol or newer analgesics which should be used at standard equine doses. Pain scoring can be the most effective way to monitor analgesia use in a clinic. Regular clinical and rectal examinations are needed for a sick donkey on analgesia, as it can be very easy to mask already subtle signs. The average 180 kg donkey can tolerate approximately 3 litres of enteral isotonic fluids via nasogastric tube. If a donkey has colic with inappetence, it is preferable to add some nutritional support with enteral fluids before waiting for a laboratory result. The use of hand-held triglyceride monitors can help with decision making. Easily available nutritional support includes dextrose (administered at 1 g/kg) and oat-based breakfast cereal (administered at 1 g/kg). Table 3 details how to calculate fluid and dextrose ratios for short term maintenance of an inappetent donkey.
Table 3. Calculating fluid and glucose requirements for a donkey requiring short-term maintenance
| Continuous rate infusion given as part of fluid therapy | Theory | Example calculation |
|---|---|---|
| 1) To calculate a maintenance fluid rate | To work out a continuous rate infusion as part of fluid therapy, the veterinarian needs to know what rate of fluids they want to give a donkey, and therefore how long a particular volume of fluid will last. | Using a standard maintenance rate of around 50 ml (40–60ml)/kg/day is equivalent to 10 litres/day (50 x 200)This equates to 416 ml/hour - for convenience, 400 ml/hr of fluid is used to supply maintenance. This is equivalent to 2 ml/kg/hr of Hartmann's solution for a 200 kg donkey.It is assumed that a 3 litre bag of Hartmann's solution is used.Therefore, 3000 ml/400 ml/hr = 7.5 hours, meaning a 3 litre bag of Hartmann's solution will last 7.5 hours. |
| 2) To calculate the glucose continuous rate infusion | The dose is 1 mg/kg/min (this can be increased to 1.5–2 mg/kg but there is a risk of hyperglycaemia, glycosuria and worsening dehydration). Glucose is supplied at 50% solution, which is equivalent to 500 mg/ml (check individual stock and concentration) | For a 200 kg donkey, the glucose continuous rate infusion rate is: 1 mg/kg/min x 200 kg = 200 mg/minPer hour: 200 mg x 60 = 12 000 mg/hrVolume (500 mg/ml) = 24 ml/hr |
| 3) Glucose continuous rate infusion given as part of fluid therapy | Using 3 litres of Hartmann's solution at 400 ml/h will last 7.5 hours Add glucose at 1 mg/kg/min | To make up the continuous rate infusion, remove the same volume of fluid from the bag and replace it with the drug (for very small volumes, this is less important). Then, calculate a drip rate for the donkey as usual:2 ml/kg/hr for 200 kg donkey = 400 ml/hr400/60 = 6.66 ml/min6.66/60 = 0.11 ml/second x 20* = 2.2 drops/second or 22 drops/10 secondsAlternatively, an infusion pump can be used*There are 20 drops per ml in most given sets |
Donkeys can become very stressed if separated from bonded companions (Murray et al, 2013), so it is advisable to keep companions close by and bring them to hospital if needed for support (Figure 6). They may need to be kept in an adjacent stable to allow different feeding regimens or catheter care, but it is important that they can be seen and heard by the sick donkey.
Surgery
A recent multicentric study on the survival of donkeys after colic surgery (Merridale-Punter et al, 2023) found that survival to discharge of donkeys post-surgery was lower than that quoted for horses (Freeman, 2018). There was a high incidence of post-operative complications (82.1%), and of these, hyperlipaemia was found in 42.9% of cases. Older donkeys had poorer survival rates compared to younger donkeys. Owners need to be aware that colic surgery appears to carry a higher risk than in the horse, and that behavioural stoicism may lead to late diagnosis and referral, which reduces survival.
In the study, clinical signs of donkeys that underwent colic surgery were divided into mild (tucked up, sternal recumbency, lying still, kicking belly), severe (rolling, lateral recumbency, sudden onset severe signs) and non-specific (anorexia, inappetence, dullness) These clinical signs were seen in 46.9% of cases. Of these cases, 30% were presented more than 72 hours after signs began, and only 26.7% within 12 hours. This highlights both the non-specific nature of signs and delay in surgery that often occurs.
Many donkeys have multiple co-morbidities (Morrow et al, 2011) including chronic laminitis, dental disease or pars pituitary intermedia dysfunction. These conditions impact the overall short- and long-term survival of the donkey and need to be considered during decision making.
Prevention
Due to the difficulty in detecting colic in donkeys and the reduced survival rates compared to horses, prevention of colic is a very effective focus for client education. A study by Fernandez et al (2021), looking at 596 donkeys admitted to The Donkey Sanctuary over 3 years, found that:
- Approximately 32% of donkeys had no passport
- Approximately 50% had no microchip
- Approximately 77% were not correctly vaccinated against influenza and tetanus
- Approximately 21% had never received anthelmintic treatment
- Approximately 71% had not received a dental examination in their lifetime
- Approximately 27% were obese or overweight
- Approximately 10% also had behavioural issues leading to relinquishment.
While this list demonstrates a significant lack of documentation and basic care, there is a great opportunity for veterinary practices to engage with donkey owners to improve the overall welfare and management of donkeys.
Dentistry
As a non-ridden equid, routine prophylactic dental care is often neglected or performed by lay dentists. In the study quoted above, only 15% of donkeys had received dental treatment by a veterinarian or British Association of Equine Dental Technician member (Fernandez et al, 2021).
Studies have found positive associations between poor dentition and impaction colic and hyperlipaemia (Cox et al, 2009; du Toit et al, 2009) (Figures 7, 8 and 9). As donkeys are often fed excess calories, there can be poor dentition even in a donkey with good or excessive body condition. However, in geriatric donkeys, poor dentition is more strongly associated with low body condition. A detailed look at the dental health of donkeys in the UK (Fernandez et al, 2023) found that there was often a long period of time in between dental treatments, with an average of 16 months, but ranging up to 15 years. One of the most significant interventions to reduce the incidence of colic is to schedule regular dental examinations and treatments as part of routine health management.
Anthelmintic use
As with all equids, anthelminitic use should be performed based on evidence-based decisions using regular faecal egg counts to guide use for the individual. Donkeys identified as having consistently high faecal egg counts need increased frequency of sampling and a clinical examination to assess any underlying immunosuppression associated with age, pars pituitary intermedia disorder or illness. In donkeys from at-risk areas (for example, those co-grazing with ruminants in wet or marshy pastures) faecal samples can also be tested for liver fluke. Salivary tests for antibodies to tapeworm and serum testing for antibodies to cythostomes are not yet validated in the donkey, so faecal sampling is required. In young donkeys, testing and treating for ascarid worms is required. As many donkeys are kept in small groups or pairs, pasture contamination with faeces can be kept low with regular ‘poo-picking’, which can assist with minimising anthelmintic use.
Geriatric donkeys and those with high adrenocorticotropic hormone secondary to pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction may have higher faecal egg counts and should be monitored more frequently. Donkey jennies that have not had appropriate deworming prior to parturition will pass high burdens to their foals likely to result in diarrhoea, ill thrift and colic. Large numbers of emerging cyathostomes can cause severe colitis without diarrhoea in donkeys (du Toit et al, 2010) (Figure 10), and veterinarians can assist in developing suitable worming plans for donkey clients.
Obesity
A study of donkey health in the UK by Cox et al (2010), found 33% of donkeys to be overweight or obese, and although obesity may not be directly linked to colic incidence it makes treatment and outcomes poorer (Figure 11). Obesity in donkeys is a risk factor for hyperlipaemia, and cases with asinine metabolic syndrome and raised insulin have an increased risk of inflammatory disorders, which is also seen in horses (Rendle et al, 2018).
Successful weight management of donkeys relies on correct feeding, exercise and the ability to perform regular weight or body condition scoring assessments. This is an area where veterinary practices can provide support and encouragement. Any donkey that needs to lose weight should have a veterinary assessment of overall health, resting triglycerides and dentition. The Donkey Sanctuary has resources available for veterinarians and owners to assist with body condition scoring, feeding, anthelmintic use and dental care: https://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/for-profes-sionals
Nutrition
Donkeys have evolved to survive by browsing on low-energy fibrous feed and their total energy requirements are significantly lower than a pony of similar size (Burden et al, 2009). A diet based on barley straw, vitamin and mineral balancer and limited grazing is sufficient for adult donkeys with good dentition in summer (Burden, 2011). However, as many donkeys have had little dental care, a very high fibre diet can predispose to impaction colic in those with poor dentition, and intermittent feeding of concentrate diet has been associated with gastric ulceration (Burden et al, 2009). A veterinary check is suggested before dietary changes are made, and any changes should be made gradually. Geriatric donkeys will benefit from the provision of warmed water to increase fluid intake and reduce the risk of impaction colic.
Stress
Companion donkeys are generally not used to being taken out or mixing with other equines. This means that many factors can cause significant stress which owners or veterinarians may not recognise. A study by Jiang et al (2021) found that travelling donkeys caused an increase in stress hormones and significant gut microbiome change, even when feed was kept identical pre- and post-journey. Stress and microbiome disruption caused by psychological or physiological changes are implicated in colic in horses and is likely to be similar in donkeys (Lara et al, 2022). If a donkey is hospitalised in an equine premises, for example, they may not be able to see over stable doors and have no access to grazing, which may delay recovery. Environmental stressors can contribute to the recovery of the donkey at home or on hospital premises, and it is helpful to understand the donkey's usual routine and attempt to replicate this in a hospital setting.
Conclusions
Signs of subtle ill health in donkeys require a detailed investigation. The Donkey Sanctuary has free resources for both owners and veterinarians to assist in donkey care, and the new Donkey Academy offers free online courses in many areas of donkey care: https://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/donkey-care/donkey-academy
KEY POINTS
- Donkeys may present with symptoms of colic later than horses.
- Veterinarians should be aware of the differences in normal parameters between horses and donkeys.
- Colic surgery in donkeys often poses a higher risk than in horses.
- Donkeys may need companions in a hospital situation to help ensure their stress levels remain as low as possible.
- Prevention of colic (through good nutrition, dentistry, correct worming and weight management) is vital in donkeys.